A slight decrease in growth hormone ratio is seen with age, resulting in decreased metabolic rate.

Summary

Read the full fact sheet

  • Metabolism refers to the countless chemical processes going on continuously inside the body that allow life and normal functioning.
  • The amount of kilojoules your body burns at any given time is affected by your metabolism.
  • Your metabolic rate is influenced by many factors – including age, gender, muscle-to-fat ratio, amount of physical activity and hormone function.

This page has been produced in consultation with and approved by:

A slight decrease in growth hormone ratio is seen with age, resulting in decreased metabolic rate.

A slight decrease in growth hormone ratio is seen with age, resulting in decreased metabolic rate.

This page has been produced in consultation with and approved by:

A slight decrease in growth hormone ratio is seen with age, resulting in decreased metabolic rate.

A slight decrease in growth hormone ratio is seen with age, resulting in decreased metabolic rate.

Support groups

From other websites

Content disclaimer

Content on this website is provided for information purposes only. Information about a therapy, service, product or treatment does not in any way endorse or support such therapy, service, product or treatment and is not intended to replace advice from your doctor or other registered health professional. The information and materials contained on this website are not intended to constitute a comprehensive guide concerning all aspects of the therapy, product or treatment described on the website. All users are urged to always seek advice from a registered health care professional for diagnosis and answers to their medical questions and to ascertain whether the particular therapy, service, product or treatment described on the website is suitable in their circumstances. The State of Victoria and the Department of Health shall not bear any liability for reliance by any user on the materials contained on this website.

1. Candow DG, Chilibeck PD. Diff erences in size, strength, and power of upper and lower body muscle groups in young and older men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2005;60:148–56. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

2. Lauretani F, Russo CR, Bandinelli S, et al. Age-associated changes in skeletal muscles and their effect on mobility: an operational diagnosis of sarcopenia. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2003;95:1851–60. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

3. Rosenberg IH. Sarcopenia: origins and clinical relevance. J Nutr. 1997;127(suppl):990–91. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

4. Thomas DR. Loss of skeletal muscle mass in aging: examining the relationship of starvation, sarcopenia and cachexia. Clin Nutr. 2007;26:389–99. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

5. Baumgartner RN, Koehler KM, Gallagher D, et al. Epidemiology of sarcopenia among the elderly in New Mexico. Am J Epidemiol. 1998;147:755–63. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

6. Janssen I, Heymsfield SB, Ross R. Low relative skeletal muscle mass (sarcopenia) in older persons is associated with functional impairment and physical disability. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002;50:889–96. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

7. Newman AB, Kupelian V, Visser M, et al. Health ABC Study Investigators. Sarcopenia: alternative definitions and associations with lower extremity function. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2003;51:1602–09. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

8. Clark BC, Manini TM. Sarcopenia =/= dynapenia. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2008;63:829–34. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

9. Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Baeyens JP, Bauer JM, et al. European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People. Sarcopenia: European consensus on defi nition and diagnosis: report of the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People. Age Ageing. 2010;39:412–23. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

10. Fielding RA, Vellas B, Evans WJ, et al. Sarcopenia: an undiagnosed condition in older adults. Current consensus defi nition: prevalence, etiology, and consequences. International working group on sarcopenia. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2011;12:249–56. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

11. von Haehling S, Morley JE, Anker SD. An overview of sarcopenia: facts and numbers on prevalence and clinical impact. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2010;1:129–33. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

12. Volpato S, Bianchi L, Cherubini A, et al. Prevalence and clinical correlates of sarcopenia in community-dwelling older people: application of the EWGSOP defi nition and diagnostic algorithm. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2013 doi: 10.1093/Gerona/glt149. published online Oct 1. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

13. Visser M, Goodpaster BH, Kritchevsky SB, et al. Muscle mass, muscle strength, and muscle fat infi ltration as predictors of incident mobility limitations in well-functioning older persons. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2005;60:324–33. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

14. Janssen I, Shepard DS, Katzmarzyk PT, Roubenoff R. The healthcare costs of sarcopenia in the United States. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004;52:80–85. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

15. Short KR, Vittone JL, Bigelow ML, Proctor DN, Nair KS. Age and aerobic exercise training effects on whole body and muscle protein metabolism. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004;286:E92–101. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

16. Lexell J. Human aging, muscle mass, and fiber type composition. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 1995;50:11–16. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

17. Campbell MJ, McComas AJ, Petito F. Physiological changes in ageing muscles. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1973;36:174–82. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

18. Goodpaster BH, Park SW, Harris TB, et al. The loss of skeletal muscle strength, mass, and quality in older adults: the health, aging and body composition study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2006;61:1059–64. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

19. Baum K, Hildebrandt U, Edel K, et al. Comparison of skeletal muscle strength between cardiac patients and age-matched healthy controls. Int J Med Sci. 2009;6:184–91. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

20. Moore AZ, Caturegli G, Metter EJ, et al. Diff erence in Muscle Quality over the Adult Life Span and Biological Correlates in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2014 doi: 10.1111/jgs.12653. published online Jan 17. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

21. Sakuma K, Yamaguchi A. Sarcopenic obesity and endocrinal adaptation with age. Int J Endocrinol. 2013;2013 204164. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

22. Chau D, Cho LM, Jani P, St Jeor ST. Individualizing recommendations for weight management in the elderly. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2008;11:27–31. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

23. Benton MJ, Whyte MD, Dyal BW. Sarcopenic obesity: strategies for management. Am J Nurs. 2011;111:38–44. quiz 45–46. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

24. Bartali B, Frongillo EA, Stipanuk MH, et al. Protein intake and muscle strength in older persons: does infl ammation matter? J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012;60:480–84. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

25. Larsson L. Morphological and functional characteristics of the ageing skeletal muscle in man. A cross-sectional study. Acta Physiol Scand Suppl. 1978;457:1–36. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

26. Larsson L, Li X, Frontera WR. Eff ects of aging on shortening velocity and myosin isoform composition in single human skeletal muscle cells. Am J Physiol. 1997;272:C638–49. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

27. Dubé J, Goodpaster BH. Assessment of intramuscular triglycerides: contribution to metabolic abnormalities. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2006;9:553–59. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

28. Crane JD, Devries MC, Safdar A, Hamadeh MJ, Tarnopolsky MA. The effect of aging on human skeletal muscle mitochondrial and intramyocellular lipid ultrastructure. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2010;65:119–28. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

29. Verdijk LB, Gleeson BG, Jonkers RA, et al. Skeletal muscle hypertrophy following resistance training is accompanied by a fiber type-specific increase in satellite cell content in elderly men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2009;64:332–39. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

30. Day K, Shefer G, Shearer A, Yablonka-Reuveni Z. The depletion of skeletal muscle satellite cells with age is concomitant with reduced capacity of single progenitors to produce reserve progeny. Dev Biol. 2010;340:330–43. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

31. Conboy IM, Conboy MJ, Wagers AJ, Girma ER, Weissman IL, Rando TA. Rejuvenation of aged progenitor cells by exposure to a young systemic environment. Nature. 2005;433:760–64. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

32. Cowie CC, Rust KF, Ford ES, et al. Full accounting of diabetes and pre-diabetes in the U.S. population in 1988–1994 and 2005–2006. Diabetes Care. 2009;32:287–94. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

33. Shaw JE, Sicree RA, Zimmet PZ. Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2010;87:4–14. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

34. Kalyani RR, Saudek CD, Brancati FL, Selvin E. Association of diabetes, comorbidities, and A1C with functional disability in older adults: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 1999-2006. Diabetes Care. 2010;33:1055–60. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

35. Volpato S, Bianchi L, Lauretani F, et al. Role of muscle mass and muscle quality in the association between diabetes and gait speed. Diabetes Care. 2012;35:1672–79. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

36. Park SW, Goodpaster BH, Lee JS, et al. Health, Aging, and Body Composition Study. Excessive loss of skeletal muscle mass in older adults with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2009;32:1993–97. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

37. Park SW, Goodpaster BH, Strotmeyer ES, et al. Health, Aging, and Body Composition Study. Accelerated loss of skeletal muscle strength in older adults with type 2 diabetes: the health, aging, and body composition study. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:1507–12. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

38. Lee CG, Boyko EJ, Barrett-Connor E, et al. Osteoporotic Fractures in Men (MrOS) Study Research Group. Insulin sensitizers may attenuate lean mass loss in older men with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2011;34:2381–86. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

39. Kalyani RR, Tra Y, Yeh HC, Egan JM, Ferrucci L, Brancati FL. Quadriceps strength, quadriceps power, and gait speed in older U.S. adults with diabetes mellitus: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2002. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61:769–75. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

40. Barzilay JI, Cotsonis GA, Walston J, et al. Health ABC Study. Insulin resistance is associated with decreased quadriceps muscle strength in nondiabetic adults aged >or=70 years. Diabetes Care. 2009;32:736–38. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

41. Kuo CK, Lin LY, Yu YH, Wu KH, Kuo HK. Inverse association between insulin resistance and gait speed in nondiabetic older men: results from the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999–2002. BMC Geriatr. 2009;9:49. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

42. Bandeen-Roche K, Xue QL, Ferrucci L, et al. Phenotype of frailty: characterization in the women’s health and aging studies. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2006;61:262–66. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

43. Fried LP, Tangen CM, Walston J, et al. Cardiovascular Health Study Collaborative Research Group. Frailty in older adults: evidence for a phenotype. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2001;56:M146–56. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

44. Kalyani RR, Tian J, Xue QL, et al. Hyperglycemia and incidence of frailty and lower extremity mobility limitations in older women. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012;60:1701–07. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

45. Fujita S, Glynn EL, Timmerman KL, Rasmussen BB, Volpi E. Supraphysiological hyperinsulinaemia is necessary to stimulate skeletal muscle protein anabolism in older adults: evidence of a true age-related insulin resistance of muscle protein metabolism. Diabetologia. 2009;52:1889–98. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

46. Kaushik S, Singh R, Cuervo AM. Autophagic pathways and metabolic stress. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2010;12(suppl 2):4–14. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

47. Wang X, Hu Z, Hu J, Du J, Mitch WE. Insulin resistance accelerates muscle protein degradation: Activation of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway by defects in muscle cell signaling. Endocrinology. 2006;147:4160–68. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

48. Kelley DE, He J, Menshikova EV, Ritov VB. Dysfunction of mitochondria in human skeletal muscle in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2002;51:2944–50. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

49. Jerusalem F, Engel AG, Peterson HA. Human muscle fiber fine structure: morphometric data on controls. Neurology. 1975;25:127–34. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

50. Mogensen M, Sahlin K, Fernström M, et al. Mitochondrial respiration is decreased in skeletal muscle of patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2007;56:1592–99. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

51. Phielix E, Mensink M. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and skeletal muscle metabolic function. Physiol Behav. 2008;94:252–58. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

52. Stump CS, Short KR, Bigelow ML, Schimke JM, Nair KS. Eff ect of insulin on human skeletal muscle mitochondrial ATP production, protein synthesis, and mRNA transcripts. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100:7996–8001. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

53. Sandri M, Lin J, Handschin C, et al. PGC-1alpha protects skeletal muscle from atrophy by suppressing FoxO3 action and atrophy-specific gene transcription. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006;103:16260–65. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

54. Boushel R, Gnaiger E, Schjerling P, Skovbro M, Kraunsøe R, Dela F. Patients with type 2 diabetes have normal mitochondrial function in skeletal muscle. Diabetologia. 2007;50:790–96. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

55. Patti ME, Butte AJ, Crunkhorn S, et al. Coordinated reduction of genes of oxidative metabolism in humans with insulin resistance and diabetes: Potential role of PGC1 and NRF1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100:8466–71. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

56. Lira VA, Benton CR, Yan Z, Bonen A. PGC-1alpha regulation by exercise training and its infl uences on muscle function and insulin sensitivity. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2010;299:E145–61. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

57. Schrauwen-Hinderling VB, Kooi ME, Hesselink MK, et al. Impaired in vivo mitochondrial function but similar intramyocellular lipid content in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and BMI-matched control subjects. Diabetologia. 2007;50:113–20. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

58. Waters DL, Baumgartner RN. Sarcopenia and obesity. Clin Geriatr Med. 2011;27:401–21. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

59. Ritz P. Editorial: Obesity in the elderly: should we be using new diagnostic criteria? J Nutr Health Aging. 2009;13:168–69. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

60. Janssen I, Mark AE. Elevated body mass index and mortality risk in the elderly. Obes Rev. 2007;8:41–59. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

61. Russo CR, Ricca M, Ferrucci L. True osteoporosis and frailty-related osteopenia: two diff erent clinical entities. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2000;48:1738–39. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

62. Alley DE, Chang VW. The changing relationship of obesity and disability, 1988–2004. JAMA. 2007;298:2020–27. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

63. Tuttle LJ, Sinacore DR, Mueller MJ. Intermuscular adipose tissue is muscle specific and associated with poor functional performance. J Aging Res. 2012;2012 172957. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

64. Pedersen BK. The diseasome of physical inactivity--and the role of myokines in muscle-fat cross talk. J Physiol. 2009;587:5559–68. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

65. Newman AB, Lee JS, Visser M, et al. Weight change and the conservation of lean mass in old age: the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82:872–78. quiz 915–16. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

66. Baumgartner RN. Body composition in healthy aging. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000;904:437–48. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

67. Davison KK, Ford ES, Cogswell ME, Dietz WH. Percentage of body fat and body mass index are associated with mobility limitations in people aged 70 and older from NHANES III. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002;50:1802–09. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

68. Kohara K. Sarcopenic obesity in aging population: current status and future directions for research. Endocrine. 2014;45:15–25. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

69. Batsis JA, Barre LK, Mackenzie TA, Pratt SI, Lopez-Jimenez F, Bartels SJ. Variation in the prevalence of sarcopenia and sarcopenic obesity in older adults associated with diff erent research defi nitions: dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999–2004. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61:974–80. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

70. Stenholm S, Alley D, Bandinelli S, et al. The effect of obesity combined with low muscle strength on decline in mobility in older persons: results from the InCHIANTI study. Int J Obes (Lond) 2009;33:635–44. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

71. Bouchard DR, Dionne IJ, Brochu M. Sarcopenic/obesity and physical capacity in older men and women: data from the Nutrition as a Determinant of Successful Aging (NuAge)-the Quebec longitudinal Study. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2009;17:2082–88. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

72. Baumgartner RN, Wayne SJ, Waters DL, Janssen I, Gallagher D, Morley JE. Sarcopenic obesity predicts instrumental activities of daily living disability in the elderly. Obes Res. 2004;12:1995–2004. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

73. Nilsson MI, Dobson JP, Greene NP, et al. Abnormal protein turnover and anabolic resistance to exercise in sarcopenic obesity. FASEB J. 2013;27:3905–16. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

74. Tchkonia T, Morbeck DE, Von Zglinicki T, et al. Fat tissue, aging, and cellular senescence. Aging Cell. 2010;9:667–84. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

75. Anderson EJ, Lustig ME, Boyle KE, et al. Mitochondrial H2O2 emission and cellular redox state link excess fat intake to insulin resistance in both rodents and humans. J Clin Invest. 2009;119:573–81. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

76. Sparks LM, Xie H, Koza RA, et al. A high-fat diet coordinately downregulates genes required for mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in skeletal muscle. Diabetes. 2005;54:1926–33. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

77. Maggio M, Ceda GP, Lauretani F, et al. Gonadal status and physical performance in older men. Aging Male. 2011;14:42–47. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

78. Labrie F, Bélanger A, Cusan L, Gomez JL, Candas B. Marked decline in serum concentrations of adrenal C19 sex steroid precursors and conjugated androgen metabolites during aging. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82:2396–402. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

79. Boxer RS, Kenny AM, Dowsett R, Taxel P. The effect of 6 months of androgen deprivation therapy on muscle and fat mass in older men with localized prostate cancer. Aging Male. 2005;8:207–12. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

80. Bhasin S, Storer TW, Berman N, et al. The effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on muscle size and strength in normal men. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

81. Krasnoff JB, Basaria S, Pencina MJ, et al. Free testosterone levels are associated with mobility limitation and physical performance in community-dwelling men: the Framingham Offspring Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95:2790–99. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

82. Travison TG, Basaria S, Storer TW, et al. Clinical meaningfulness of the changes in muscle performance and physical function associated with testosterone administration in older men with mobility limitation. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2011;66:1090–99. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

83. Emmelot-Vonk MH, Verhaar HJ, Nakhai Pour HR, et al. Effect of testosterone supplementation on functional mobility, cognition, and other parameters in older men: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2008;299:39–52. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

84. Basaria S, Coviello AD, Travison TG, et al. Adverse events associated with testosterone administration. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:109–22. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

85. Kadi F. Cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for the action of testosterone on human skeletal muscle. A basis for illegal performance enhancement. Br J Pharmacol. 2008;154:522–28. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

86. Bondanelli M, Ambrosio MR, Margutti A, Franceschetti P, Zatelli MC, degli Uberti EC. Activation of the somatotropic axis by testosterone in adult men: evidence for a role of hypothalamic growth hormone-releasing hormone. Neuroendocrinology. 2003;77:380–87. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

87. Giannoulis MG, Sonksen PH, Umpleby M, et al. The effects of growth hormone and/or testosterone in healthy elderly men: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:477–84. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

88. Schroeder ET, He J, Yarasheski KE, et al. Value of measuring muscle performance to assess changes in lean mass with testosterone and growth hormone supplementation. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012;112:1123–31. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

89. Mudali S, Dobs AS. Effects of testosterone on body composition of the aging male. Mech Ageing Dev. 2004;125:297–304. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

90. Chahal HS, Drake WM. The endocrine system and ageing. J Pathol. 2007;211:173–80. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

91. McIntire KL, Hoffman AR. The endocrine system and sarcopenia: potential therapeutic benefits. Curr Aging Sci. 2011;4:298–305. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

92. Ryall JG, Schertzer JD, Lynch GS. Cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying age-related skeletal muscle wasting and weakness. Biogerontology. 2008;9:213–28. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

93. Perrini S, Laviola L, Carreira MC, Cignarelli A, Natalicchio A, Giorgino F. The GH/IGF1 axis and signaling pathways in the muscle and bone: mechanisms underlying age-related skeletal muscle wasting and osteoporosis. J Endocrinol. 2010;205:201–10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

94. Nass R, Thorner MO. Impact of the GH-cortisol ratio on the age-dependent changes in body composition. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2002;12:147–61. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

95. Salomon F, Cuneo RC, Hesp R, Sönksen PH. The effects of treatment with recombinant human growth hormone on body composition and metabolism in adults with growth hormone deficiency. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:1797–803. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

96. Liu H, Bravata DM, Olkin I, et al. Systematic review: the safety and efficacy of growth hormone in the healthy elderly. Ann Intern Med. 2007;146:104–15. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

97. Riis AL, Jørgensen JO, Gjedde S, et al. Whole body and forearm substrate metabolism in hyperthyroidism: evidence of increased basal muscle protein breakdown. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2005;288:E1067–73. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

98. Nørrelund H, Hove KY, Brems-Dalgaard E, et al. Muscle mass and function in thyrotoxic patients before and during medical treatment. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1999;51:693–99. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

99. Schakman O, Gilson H, Thissen JP. Mechanisms of glucocorticoid-induced myopathy. J Endocrinol. 2008;197:1–10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

100. Gupta A, Gupta Y. Glucocorticoid-induced myopathy: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2013;17:913–16. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

101. Pfeifer M, Begerow B, Minne HW. Vitamin D and muscle function. Osteoporos Int. 2002;13:187–94. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

102. Kalyani RR, Stein B, Valiyil R, Manno R, Maynard JW, Crews DC. Vitamin D treatment for the prevention of falls in older adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2010;58:1299–310. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

103. Ferrucci L, Baroni M, Ranchelli A, et al. Interaction between bone and muscle in older persons with mobility limitations. Curr Pharm Des. 2013 doi: 10.2174/13816128113196660690. published online Sept 18. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

104. Terracciano C, Celi M, Lecce D, et al. Differential features of muscle fiber atrophy in osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. Osteoporos Int. 2013;24:1095–100. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

105. Rolland Y, Abellan van Kan G, Gillette-Guyonnet S, Vellas B. Cachexia versus sarcopenia. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2011;14:15–21. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

106. de Oliveira Nunes Teixeira V, Filippin LI, Viacava PR, de Oliveira PG, Xavier RM. Muscle wasting in collagen-induced arthritis and disuse atrophy. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2013;238:1421–30. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

107. McDermott MM, Guralnik JM, Albay M, Bandinelli S, Miniati B, Ferrucci L. Impairments of muscles and nerves associated with peripheral arterial disease and their relationship with lower extremity functioning: the InCHIANTI Study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004;52:405–10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

108. Abbatecola AM, Chiodini P, Gallo C, et al. Health ABC study. Pulse wave velocity is associated with muscle mass decline: Health ABC study. Age (Dordr) 2012;34:469–78. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

109. Buford TW, Anton SD, Judge AR, et al. Models of accelerated sarcopenia: critical pieces for solving the puzzle of age-related muscle atrophy. Ageing Res Rev. 2010;9:369–83. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

110. Lecker SH, Goldberg AL, Mitch WE. Protein degradation by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway in normal and disease states. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17:1807–19. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

111. Sacheck JM, Ohtsuka A, McLary SC, Goldberg AL. IGF-I stimulates muscle growth by suppressing protein breakdown and expression of atrophy-related ubiquitin ligases, atrogin-1 and MuRF1. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004;287:E591–601. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

112. Taskapan H, Baysal O, Karahan D, Durmus B, Altay Z, Ulutas O. Vitamin D and muscle strength, functional ability and balance in peritoneal dialysis patients with vitamin D deficiency. Clin Nephrol. 2011;76:110–16. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

113. Tessari P. Protein metabolism in liver cirrhosis: from albumin to muscle myofibrils. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2003;6:79–85. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

114. Jones JC, Coombes JS, Macdonald GA. Exercise capacity and muscle strength in patients with cirrhosis. Liver Transpl. 2012;18:146–51. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

115. Dodson S, Baracos VE, Jatoi A, et al. Muscle wasting in cancer cachexia: clinical implications, diagnosis, and emerging treatment strategies. Annu Rev Med. 2011;62:265–79. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

116. Muscaritoli M, Anker SD, Argilés J, et al. Consensus definition of sarcopenia, cachexia and pre-cachexia: joint document elaborated by Special Interest Groups (SIG) “cachexia-anorexia in chronic wasting diseases” and “nutrition in geriatrics” Clin Nutr. 2010;29:154–59. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

117. Stene GB, Helbostad JL, Balstad TR, Riphagen II, Kaasa S, Oldervoll LM. Effect of physical exercise on muscle mass and strength in cancer patients during treatment—a systematic review. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2013;88:573–93. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

118. Grinspoon S, Corcoran C, Lee K, et al. Loss of lean body and muscle mass correlates with androgen levels in hypogonadal men with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and wasting. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81:4051–58. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

119. Souza PM, Jacob-Filho W, Santarém JM, Zomignan AA, Burattini MN. Effect of progressive resistance exercise on strength evolution of elderly patients living with HIV compared to healthy controls. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 2011;66:261–66. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

120. Porro LJ, Herndon DN, Rodriguez NA, et al. Five-year outcomes after oxandrolone administration in severely burned children: a randomized clinical trial of safety and efficacy. J Am Coll Surg. 2012;214:489–502. discussion 502–04. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

121. Cauza E, Strehblow C, Metz-Schimmerl S, et al. Effects of progressive strength training on muscle mass in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients determined by computed tomography. Wien Med Wochenschr. 2009;159:141–47. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

122. Davidson LE, Hudson R, Kilpatrick K, et al. Effects of exercise modality on insulin resistance and functional limitation in older adults: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169:122–31. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

123. Fiatarone MA, O’Neill EF, Ryan ND, et al. Exercise training and nutritional supplementation for physical frailty in very elderly people. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:1769–75. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

124. Marzetti E, Calvani R, Cesari M, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction and sarcopenia of aging: from signaling pathways to clinical trials. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2013;45:2288–301. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

125. Villareal DT, Banks M, Sinacore DR, Siener C, Klein S. Effect of weight loss and exercise on frailty in obese older adults. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:860–66. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

126. Hikida RS, Staron RS, Hagerman FC, et al. Effects of high-intensity resistance training on untrained older men. II. Muscle fiber characteristics and nucleo-cytoplasmic relationships. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2000;55:B347–54. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

127. Kosek DJ, Kim JS, Petrella JK, Cross JM, Bamman MM. Efficacy of 3 days/wk resistance training on myofiber hypertrophy and myogenic mechanisms in young vs. older adults. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2006;101:531–44. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

128. Kryger AI, Andersen JL. Resistance training in the oldest old: consequences for muscle strength, fiber types, fiber size, and MHC isoforms. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2007;17:422–30. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

129. Thornell LE. Sarcopenic obesity: satellite cells in the aging muscle. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2011;14:22–27. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

130. Boulé NG, Haddad E, Kenny GP, Wells GA, Sigal RJ. Effects of exercise on glycemic control and body mass in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. JAMA. 2001;286:1218–27. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

131. Wycherley TP, Noakes M, Clifton PM, Cleanthous X, Keogh JB, Brinkworth GD. A high-protein diet with resistance exercise training improves weight loss and body composition in overweight and obese patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2010;33:969–76. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

132. Frøsig C, Richter EA. Improved insulin sensitivity after exercise: focus on insulin signaling. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2009;17(suppl 3):15–20. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

133. Lund S, Holman GD, Schmitz O, Pedersen O. Contraction stimulates translocation of glucose transporter GLUT4 in skeletal muscle through a mechanism distinct from that of insulin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1995;92:5817–21. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

134. Tipton KD, Rasmussen BB, Miller SL, et al. Timing of amino acid-carbohydrate ingestion alters anabolic response of muscle to resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001;281:E197–206. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

135. Solerte SB, Gazzaruso C, Bonacasa R, et al. Nutritional supplements with oral amino acid mixtures increases whole-body lean mass and insulin sensitivity in elderly subjects with sarcopenia. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101:69E–77E. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

136. Mazzali G, Di Francesco V, Zoico E, et al. Interrelations between fat distribution, muscle lipid content, adipocytokines, and insulin resistance: effect of moderate weight loss in older women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;84:1193–99. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

137. Paddon-Jones D, Rasmussen BB. Dietary protein recommendations and the prevention of sarcopenia. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2009;12:86–90. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

138. Symons TB, Schutzler SE, Cocke TL, Chinkes DL, Wolfe RR, Paddon-Jones D. Aging does not impair the anabolic response to a protein-rich meal. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:451–56. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

139. Marsh AP, Lovato LC, Glynn NW, et al. LIFE Study Research Group. Lifestyle interventions and independence for elders study: recruitment and baseline characteristics. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2013;68:1549–58. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Why does metabolic rate decrease with age?

The volume of skeletal musculature decreases and the percentage of fat tissue increases with age. It is shown that the decrease in muscle mass relative to total body may be wholly responsible for the age-related decreases in basal metabolic rate.

What hormone causes low metabolic rate?

Thyroid hormone (TH) regulates metabolic processes essential for normal growth and development as well as regulating metabolism in the adult (28, 40, 189). It is well established that thyroid hormone status correlates with body weight and energy expenditure (80, 127, 143).

What does a decrease in metabolic rate mean?

A person with a "low" (or slow) metabolism will burn fewer calories at rest and during activity and therefore has to eat less to avoid becoming overweight.

What decreases metabolic age?

If you're 40, your metabolic age should really be 40 too. Those that are fitter will find their metabolic age reads much younger than their chronological age. To decrease your metabolic age, you need to reduce the percentage of body fat and increase the percentage of muscle mass you're made from.